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Contrastive study between Chinese and English in Grammar 1. What is grammar It refers to a description of the structure of a language and the way in which linguistic units such as words and phrases are combined to produce sentences in a language. It consists of two branches: morphology and syntax . Morphology comprises two parts: inflectional morphology and derivational morphology. Inflectional morphology is concerned with morphological variations that result from grammatical needs. Derivational morphology is concerned with morphological variations a means of word-building. 2.Morphological contrastive study Contrastive analysis on the level of inflectional morphology is largely a matter of constrasting the devices different languages employ to transmit grammatical meanings. These devices are usually known as “grammatical categories”， which include aspect， tense， case， gender， mood， person， class of word(parts of speech) 1) Aspect in English and Chinese In English the aspectual meaning is realized by resorting to auxiliary words and verb conjugation. Eg. They are watching TV now.(progressive) He has finished his homework. (perfect) While in Chinese， there are some particles like 着、正在、了、过，used to indicate aspect. Eg. 1. progressive aspect 他正等着呢，快点。 她正在看电视。 2. perfect aspect 我写完作业了。 我去过伦敦，还去过纽约。 2）tense in English and Chinese In English， tenses， like aspect， are realized by resorting to auxiliary words and verb conjugation. When aspects combine with tense， eg. When progressive combines with tense， the past progressive， present progressive and future progressive result. As Chinese does not have the grammatical category of tense， the temporal notions indicated by English tenses are lexicalized in Chinese. The lexical words used are mainly adverbs like 那时，昨天，上周，去年，etc.， sometimes together with 曾经，过etc. to indicate the past tense; 明天，下周，明年，要etc. to indicate future tense; 已经，一直etc. to signal perfect tense. For example: (1) 那时他正要锁门。 He was going to lock the door then. （2）她昨天买了一辆车。 She bought the car yesterday. （3）John曾经因违章停车被罚过100美元。 John was once fined 100 dollars for misplacing his car. （4）我要去买东西。 I’m going to go shopping. （5）他明早会演奏这支曲子。 He will be playing the tone tomorrow morning. （6）他已经得了三次一等奖。 He has already won the first prize for three times. （7）五岁以来，他一直在学钢琴。 He has been learning piano since she was five. 3. Case in English and Chinese In English， there are nominative case like I， we， you， he， they， objective case like me， us， you， her， him， and possessive case like my， our， your， her， his and their and nominal pronoun like mine， ours， yours， hers， his， and theirs. While in Chinese， there is no such inflection of case pronoun. It is the word order that determines if a noun or noun phrases is the nominative case or the objective case or possessive case. Eg.: She likes reading. 她喜欢读书 Everybody likes her. 人人都喜欢她。 this is her book. 这是她的书。 The difference often presents problems for beginners， sometimes even the intermediate learners choose the wrong forms which result in mistakes in their writing or speaking. Eg. Mary doesn’t like *he， so do *me (him， I); to my surprise， he has finished a *day work.(a day’s) 4. Gender in English and Chinese Generally speaking， both English and Chinese don’t have word inflections indicating particular masculine or feminine of a thing. However， a few English words can be used as a specific reference to a masculine or a feminine. Eg. Actor actress Waiter waitress Host hostess Hero heroine While in Chinese， there is no such suffix to denote gender. Often the prefix ‘男’or ‘女’ is added to show masculine or feminine. 5. Mood in English and Chinese Mood in English 1) subjunctive mood suggesting doubt， condition， or a situation contrary to the fact is realized by resorting to auxiliaries with the conjugation of verbs in sentences. Eg. A. if I were you， I would apply for the job. B. If I had finished my homework earlier， I would have gone with you to the theatre. C. it’s important (necessary， strange， impossible) that sb. should do sth. D. he suggests (orders， recommends， requires， insists) that sb. should do sth. E. I wish that he could come. 2) mood of advice， permission， necessity， guessing， possibility， prediction， request， condition and oblige is expressed by using the modal verbs like may， might， can， could， should， would， must， ought to…….eg. A. The hunters have been lost for days. They could starve! B. May I have a look at your pictures? C. When going by airplane， you should arrive at the airport at least one hour earlier. D. A man landed on Mars? You must be joking. That can’t be true. Imperative mood often indicates commands. Eg. Look out when crossing the street. Read out loud please. 2. Mood in Chinese In Chinese， emotional particles like “啦”，”吧”， “呀”， “啊”， “嘛”， “呢”， “哪”plus intonation are used to express different kinds of mood. 1）啦 他早回来了！ He came back much earlier today. 他不来啦？ He didn’t come， did he? 2）吧 你再想想吧！ Please think it over! 他恐怕不知道真相吧！ I’m afraid he doesn’t know the truth. 信还没写完吧？ You haven’t finished the letter， have you? 3）呀 快说呀！ Please tell us， be quick! 这样做才对呀！ This is the exact way to do things. 哎呀！下雨啦。 Oh! It’s raining. 谁呀？ Who is it? 4）啊 多美的花啊！ How beautiful these flowers are! 你可要细心啊！ be careful! 5）嘛 不能怕难嘛。 Don’t be afraid of the difficulties， OK? 我不想去嘛。 I really don’t want to go， shall I not go? 6）呗 你不会开车就学呗。 You can’t drive? Well， learn to. 7）呢 作业还没完成呢。 I haven’t finished my homework yet. 你不信才怪呢。 I’m sure you believe it. 你怎么能这么粗心呢？ How can you be so careless? 8）哪 加油干哪！ Speed up!/Come on! Emotional particles， is a unique characteristics of Chinese language which is absent in English， so in English language， intonation is often employed to express such mood. Besides emotional particles， mood of advice， permission， necessity， guessing， possibility， prediction， request， condition and oblige is also expressed by using the modal verbs like 可以，可能，必须，应该 etc.. Eg. 1) 她可能会生气。(guessing) She must be very angry. 2）你应该尽早完成作业。(request) You should finish your homework as soon as possible. 3）你可以打开窗子。(permission) You can open the window now. 4）你必须对此负责。(reproaching) You must be responsible for it. Person in English and Chinese English and Chinese are almost the same in this aspect except that if a third person singular used as subject in English， the main verb should conjugate to agree with it， which is not the case in Chinese. For example: They like playing basketball. 他们喜欢打篮球。 He likes playing basketball. 他喜欢打篮球。 Part of speech in English and Chinese To divide words into classes is a method of analyzing language. Words are grouped as different classes(usu. called parts of speech) according to their properties and the way they function in sentences. Words can be divided into notion words (full words/lexical words) and form words (function words/ structural words/empty words/grammatical words) in both English and Chinese. Notion words include nouns， pronouns， adjectives， numerals， verbs， adverbs， while functional words include prepositions， conjunctions， interjections and auxiliary words. The difference here is that there is no article in Chinese and there are no auxiliary particles in English. 1.noun Nouns indicate the names of people or things， they can be further divided into three sub-sorts: proper nouns (e.g. Beijing)， common nouns (desk) and abstract nouns (thought， imagination). In English all the countable nouns have plural forms with the general ending –s(except the irregular forms); while in Chinese the nouns never change their forms. Plural forms in Chinese are often realized by adding numerals before nouns. E.g.许多树 (many trees)， 三本书(three books)， 两只山羊(two goats). Problems caused by the differences for Chinese learners can be demonstrated as follows: 1）Tom， will you play outside? There is not enough rooms for you here. 2)More than one foreign language are taught in this school. 3)In order to buy a nice shoes， he went to several shoes stores. 4)Fly spread disease， so we should think of ways to get rid of them. In addition， many nouns in English are identifiable by the fact that they share derivations such as –ness (darkness)， -ty(cruelty)， -ity(purity)，-tion(collection)， -ation(appreciation)， -ship(hardship)，etc.. Noun often serves as subject， object， appositive in English sentences， while noun serves not only as subject， object， appositive in Chinese， but also predicate， attributive as well. 2. adjective Adjectives which describe nouns show the quality of people or things. In English， adjectives have comparative degree and superlative degree， e.g. fast， faster， and fastest. And the two degrees depend on the suffix changes of the words to be realized. While in Chinese， 比/比较/较(comparative degree)，最(superlative degree) is often used in front of the adjectives to show the degrees， for example: 1) 我们能用较少的人或资金把工作做得更好吗？ Can we do our work better with fewer people and less money? 2)小芳在她们班个子最高。 Xiao Fang is the tallest girl in her class. Besides， many adjectives in English are identifiable by the fact that they share derivations such as –ive (creative， positive， administrative)， -ful (beautiful， plentiful， wonderful)， -al (colonial， economical， commercial)， -ty ( pretty， witty) and so on. 3. adverb Adverbs often modify adjectives， verbs or other adverbs showing such concepts as time， place， degree， manners， etc. The position of the adverb in Chinese sentence and English sentence is different in the following way: 1) in Chinese， time adverb often appears at the beginning of a sentence or after the subject， while time adverb in English often appears at the end of a sentence. For example: 明年， 王老师就从美国回来了。/王老师明年就从美国回来了。 2) indefinite time adverbs like always， often， frequently， usually， follow the subject in both languages. For example: He always gets up late. 他总是起床很晚。 We often go to school together. 我们经常一起去上学。 3）when modifying verbs， most degree adverbs or manner adverbs such as seriously， slowly， hard， carefully…..often follow the verbs or verb phrases in English， while in Chinese， such adverbs often precede the verbs introduced by particle ‘地’ or appear after the particle ‘得’. For example: He works very hard. 他努力地工作/他工作得很努力。 He did his homework very carefully. 他作业做得很仔细。 He drank thirstily. 他大口地喝着水。 4) when an adverb modifies an adjective， it appears before the modified adjective in both languages. For example: It is a rather difficult job. 这是一项相当难的工作。 5）in English，when an adverb is used as attributive， it often follows the antecedent， while in Chinese， it appears before the antecedent. For example: I met Peter on my way home. 在回家的路上，我碰到了皮得。 The students there enjoy their school life very much. 那儿的学生非常喜欢学校生活。 In English the easy way to identify many adverbs is by derivational suffix like –ly， -ward， -wise such as in economically， semantically， thirstily， especially; forward， toward; clockwise， etc.. The differences often cause problems for Chinese learners as follows: a. he runs more fastly than I do， as we all know. B. I hard worked and finally passed the exam successful. C. last Sunday at 10 o’clock we went shopping in the supermarket. D. he very much likes learning english. 4.verbs Semantically， most verbs denote actions and activities. Syntactically， a verb， together with other elements， forms the predicate of a sentence. Verbs in English inflect， while in Chinese， verbs don’t. this difference presents difficulties for Chinese learners as displayed in the following sentences: 1) the water feels cool when I washed my hands this morning. 2) they buyed a new car last week. 3) he said he doesn’t like his job. 4) I call him this morning. Verb variation –”indefinite verbs” including gerund， present particle and past particle has the function of both verb and noun， which is excluded in Chinese and presents difficulties for Chinese learners of English. For example: 1) we finally knew he was an experiencing teacher. 2) looking out of the window， a car accident was seen. 3) revolution means to liberate the productive forces. 4) the teacher came in， following by some students. 5. pronoun A pronoun is often used as a substitute for a previously stated noun called the antecedent. Pronoun can act as subject， object and appositive in both languages. There are 5 types of pronouns in english. 1) personal pronoun: Subject or nominative pronoun: I， he， she， it， we， you， they Object or objective pronoun: me， him， her， it， us， you， them Possessive pronoun: my， his， her， its， our， your， their (adjective pronoun); mine， his， hers， its， ours， yours， theirs (noun possessives) Reflexive pronoun: myself， himself， herself， itself， ourselves， yourselves， themselves. 2) interrogative pronoun: what， who， whose， whom， which 3) demonstrative pronouns: this， that， these， those. 4) relative pronouns: who， whose， whom， which， that 5) indefinite pronoun: something， somebody， no one， one， both， anything， anybody， nothing， everything， none， etc. Chinese pronoun is similar to that of English in classification， but the usage is somewhat different， which often presents difficulties for Chinese learners of English as follows: 1) whom did you say was calling? 你说刚才谁给打电话了？ 2) the secret must remain between you and I. 这个秘密到你和我这里为止。 3) Bill and me were the winners last time. 比尔和我是最后的胜利者。 4) he is as tall as myself. 他跟我一样高。 5) I have myself’s opinion. 我有自己的想法。 6) In Joy’s novel， he delights in complex puns and in playing with words. 在乔伊的小说中，他喜欢玩复杂的双关游戏和文字游戏。 6.preposition Preposition may be defined as a connecting word showing the relation of a noun to some other words in a sentence. Preposition in English includes single ones as with， to， in， on， of， about， between， through; compound prepositions as inside， onto， upon， within， without， throughout and idiomatic prepositions as according to， along with， because of， in front of， on behalf of， with regard to， etc.. And in many fixed collocations， the change of prepositions can mean different things. For example， take after(长得像)， take in(接纳)， take off(脱掉)， take on(雇佣，呈现)， take over(接管)， take out(拿掉)… and over 90% of the usage of prepositions involves the following nine ones: with， to， from， at， in， by， for and on. Preposition appears constantly in English speech and writing and the usage is complicated. In Chinese， the most commonly used prepositions are: 把，给，让，叫，在，除，比，从，由，自从，向，往，朝，跟，对，etc.， which are less frequently used than their English counterparts. For example: 1) 我们（在）11点在火车站会面。 We’ll meet at the railway station at 11 o’clock. 2）（在）下午发生了一场车祸。 A car accident occurred in the afternoon. 3）（在）周日我常待在学校。 I often stayed at school on Sundays. The differences often cause troubles like: 1)The room was full with smokes after the big fire. 2) the two classrooms are quite different from size. 3) the visitors to Japan will arrive in Beijing Sunday. 4) the teachers will be back after two hours. 5)my father bought a new skirt to me. The other difference is that if a Chinese sentence contains a preposition construction， this structure should be placed before verbs as an adverbial adjunct. For example: 她在宿舍给朋友写信。（she is writing to her friends at the dormitory.） while in English， preposition constructions are often placed after the main verb， so English learners of Chinese may make such mistakes as: 1)我朋友不学习汉语在北京。 2）帕柳卡学习汉语和丁云。 7. conjunction Conjunctions are used to connect words， phrases or sentences. The commonly used English conjunctions are as follows: 1) coordinative conjunctions such as and(和）， or（或）， but（但是）， however（然而）， therefore（因此）， as well as（以及）， either…or..（要么。。。要么）， neither…nor…（既不。。也不）， not only…but also（不但。。而且）， etc.. 2）subordinate conjunctions such as if（是否）， whether（是否）， when（在。。。时候）， if（如果）， because（因为）， so that（结果）， since（由于）， after（在。。。之后）， before（在。。。之前）， etc.. 3)participle conjunctions such as supposing（假设）， provided（倘若）， concerning（关于）， considering（鉴于）， which are absent in Chinese. The use of conjunctions between English and Chinese are different to some degree. For example， ‘and’ is often used in English to form a coordinate clause while a quotation mark may be used in Chinese. For example， He likes football and I like it too. The second difference is that some conjunctions such as “因为。。。所以”， “不但。。。而且”， “如果。。。那么”， are often used together， or omitted in Chinese， while only one of the pair can be used in English， thus interference often occur here. For example， ‘because he is sick， so he is absent from school.’ ‘though there are many difficulties， but we are determined to finish the work on time.’ obviously， one of the conjunctions in the above sentences should be deleted. However， it’s quite appropriate to say: “因为生病了，所以他没去学校，”“虽然有很多困难，但是我们决定按时完成工作”in Chinese. The differences caused other troubles for Chinese learners’， esp. about the use of subordinate conjunctions and misuse of other conjunctions. For example: 1) the reason why I burst into tears is because I don’t want to part from my mother. 2)he lay in which the grass was the thickest. 3)be careful， and you’ll fall into the river. 4)I like the color of the hat， I don’t like its shape. 5)he won the first prize in speech contest， he felt very proud.
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