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Chapter 1 Introduction By Nicole 2012.04.15 1.1 what is linguistics? Definition: linguistics is generally defined as the scientific study of language. It is based on the systematic investigation of linguistic data， conducted with reference to some general theory of language structure. It studies not any particular language， but languages in general. Linguist Purpose: to discover the nature and rules of the underlying language system. How to do: To observed and collect language facts， which are found to display some similarities; Make generalizations; Formulate some hypotheses about the language structure; Check repeatedly the hypotheses thus formed against the observed facts to fully prove their validity(效度). In linguistics， data and theory stand in a dialectical complementation. a theory without the support of data can hardly claim validity， and data without being explained by some theory remain a muddled mass of things. The scope of linguistics General linguistics(普通语言学):/ Theoretical linguistics (理论语言学) the study of language as a whole -----basic concepts， -----theories， -----descriptions， -----models， -----methods Some branches within linguistics 语言学内的分支 (core of linguistics) Phonetics(语音学): study of sounds used in linguistic communication phonology(音位学): how sounds are put together and used to convey meaning in communication Morphology(形态学): study of the way in which symbols (morphemes: representation of sounds) are arranged and combined to form words Some branches within linguistics (core of linguistics) Syntax(句法学): study of rules which govern combination of words to form grammatically permissible sentences in language Semantics (语义学):study of meaning convey by language Pragmatics (语用学): study of meaning in the context of language use Some interdisciplinary branches 与语言学相关的跨学科研究 Sociolinguistics(社会语言学): study of social aspects (social background， occasions， social change) of language and its relation with society Psycholinguistics(心理语言学): study of language to psychology how human mind works when using language， how we acquire MT， how we memorize， how we process information Some interdisciplinary branches Applied linguistics (应用语言学): Broad sense ------ study of how findings in linguistic studies can be applied to the solution of practical problems (speech recovery) Narrow sense ----- application of linguistic theories and principles to language teaching， esp. teaching of foreign and second language (TEFL) Some important distinctions in linguistics Prescriptive vs. descriptive 规定与描写 Synchronic vs. diachronic 共时与历时 Speech and writing 说话与写作 Langue and parole 语言与言语 Competence and performance 语言能力与语言运用 Traditional grammar and modern linguistics 传统语法学与现代语言学 1. Prescriptive and descriptive Prescriptive (规定性) (eg. old linguistics) ------lay down rules for correct and standard behavior in using language descriptive (描述性) (eg. modern linguistics) ------ describe and analyze language people actually use Modern linguistics is mostly descriptive. ----Supposed to be scientific and objective ----Aiming to describe the language people actually use， be it ‘correct’ or not; ----So whatever language used should be described and analyzed in the investigation Grammar (earlier studies of language， based on ‘high---religious， literary’ written language) ----Aiming to set models for language users to follow 2. Synchronic and diachronic Synchronic (共时性) ----- description of a language at some point of time in history / in its current existence Diachronic (历时性) ---- description of a language as it changes through time ---- study of historical development of language over a period of time A synchronic approach enjoys priority over a diachronic one ---unless the various states of a language in different historical periods are successfully studied， it would be difficult to describe the changes that have taken place in its historical development Most linguistics studies are of synchronic type. 3. Speech and writing Two major media of communication Speech the natural or primary medium of human language by modern linguistics ----- linguistic evolution ----- greater role in terms of amount of information conveyed ----- first acquired ----- authentic， true features of human speech Writing ---- invented to record speech ---- learned and taught later ---- revised record of speech 4. Langue and parole Swiss linguist F. de Saussure (索绪尔)， early 20th C Langue(语言系统): ---- abstract linguistic system shared by all the members of a speech community ---- set of conventions and rules which language users all have to abide by ---- abstract; ---- stable relatively; not change frequently Parole (话语/言语) ---- realization of langue in actual use， message ---- concrete use of conventions and application of the rules， naturally occurring language events; mass of linguistic facts ---- concrete; ---- changes from person to person， from situation to situation Purpose for such a distinction ---- to single out one aspect of language for serious study Parole is simply a mass of linguistic facts， too varied and confusing for systematic investigation， and what linguists should do is to abstract langue from parole. 5. competence and performance American linguist N. Chomsky， late 1950s Competence (语言能力) ---- ideal user’s knowledge of the rules of his language / native speaker’s perfect knowledge of grammatical rules， lexis and sound system --- internalize a set of rules about his language， and able to produce and understand an infinitely large number of sentences and recognize sentences ungrammatical and ambiguous Performance (语言运用) ---- actual realization of this knowledge in linguistic communication / what actually occurs in practice， -----a faulty representation of competence， caused by psychological restrictions， such as memory lapses and limitations， distractions， stress， anxiety， changes of direction half-way through a sentence， hesitation 5. competence and performance Purpose for such a distinction: -----To abstract langue from parole -----To discover regularities governing the actual use of language and make them the subjects of study of linguistics Error: caused by lack of knowledge about the target language or by incorrect hypotheses about it; Mistake: caused by temporary lapses of memory， confusion， slips of the tongue and so on. What linguistics should study is the ideal speaker’s competence， not his performance. Saussure: sociological view Chomsky: psychological point of view 6. Traditional grammar and modern linguistics Traditional grammar --- general approach traditionally formed to the study of language over the years by some European philosophers and grammarians Modern linguistics ---- marked by the book “Course in General Linguistics” by Saussure in the early 20th century Differences between traditional grammar & modern linguistics First， linguistics is descriptive while traditional grammar is prescriptive. Second， modern linguistics regards the spoken language as primary， not the written. Traditional grammarians tend to emphasize， may be over-emphasize， the importance of the written word， partly because of its permanence. Third， modern linguistics differs from traditional grammar also in that it does not force languages into a Latin-based framework. Differences between traditional grammar & modern linguistics Modern linguistics ---- descriptive linguists interested in what is said rather than what he thinks ought to be said; describes L in all its aspects， but not prescribe rules of ‘correctness’; no absolute standard of correctness; observe and record instead of judge; changes in L and L use as the result of a natural and continuous process. Differences between traditional grammar & modern linguistics Modern linguistics ---- descriptive ---- spoken language as primary ---- try to set up a universal framework based on features shared by most languages instead of only one Traditional grammar ---- prescriptive ---- over-emphasize written word for its permanence; people encouraged to imitate the best authors for language usage in education ---- force languages into a Latin-based framework Exercises What is linguistics? How do you interpret the definition of linguistics? What are the major branches of linguistics? What does each of them study? In what basic ways does modern linguistics differ from traditional grammar? Is modern linguistic mainly synchronic or diachronic? Why? For what reasons does modern linguistics give priority to speech rather than to writing? How is Saussure's distinction between langue and parole similar to Chomsky's distinction between competence and performance? 1.2 what is language？ ---- a tool for human communication (narrow: function) ---- a set of rules (broad) ---- a purely human and non-instinctive method of communicating ideas， emotions and desires by means of voluntarily produced symbols (American Linguist Sapir 1921) ---- a set (finite or infinite) of sentences， each finite in length and constructed out of a finite set of elements (Chomsky， 1957) ---- institution whereby humans communicate and interact with each other by means of habitually used oral-auditory arbitrary symbols (Hall， 1968) Definition of language Language is a system of arbitrary vocal symbols used for human communication. 语言是一个具有任意性、用于人类交流的语音符号系统。 Definition of language Language is a system of arbitrary vocal symbols used for human communication. Language is a system. Elements of language are combined according to rules. E.g. 1 iblk E.g. 2 Been he wounded has. Definition of language Language is a system of arbitrary vocal symbols used for human communication. There is no intrinsic connection between a linguistic symbol and what the symbol stands for. E.g. pen Words are just symbols; they are associated with objects， actions， ideas， etc. by convention. Arbitrary What's in a name? That which we call a rose by any other name would smell as sweet. ---- Shakespeare 名字有什么关系？把玫瑰花叫做别的名称，它还是照样芳香。 ——莎士比亚 Definition of language Language is a system of arbitrary vocal symbols used for human communication. Language is vocal because the primary medium for all languages is sound. Writing systems came into being much later than the spoken forms. Children acquire spoken language before they can read or write. Definition of language Language is a system of arbitrary vocal symbols used for human communication. Language is human-specific. It is very different from the communication system other forms of life posses. 1.2.2 design features of language Design features refer to the defining properties of human language that distinguish it from any animal system of communication. 识别特征指的是人类语言区别与任何动物交际系统的本质性特征。 1.2.2 design features of language Arbitrariness任意性 Productivity能产性 Duality双重性 Displacement移位性 Cultural transmission文化传承性 1. arbitrariness There is no logical connection between meanings and sounds. While language is arbitrary by nature， it is not entirely arbitrary; certain words are motivated. Onomatopoeic words Some compound words possible for language to have an unlimited source of expressions Non-arbitrary words make up only a small percentage of the vocabulary of a language. 2. productivity Language is productive or creative in that it makes possible the construction and interpretation of new signals by its users. ---- construction and interpretation of new signals by its users; human beings can produce novel utterances whenever they want to ---- understand and produce an infinitely large number of sentences; the potential number of utterances in any human language is infinite 2. productivity Productivity is unique to human language. E.g. gibbon E.g. bee 3. duality two sets of structures/levels: enable people to talk about anything within their knowledge ----- lower level: structure of sounds， meaningless by themselves ----- higher level: sounds of language can be grouped and regrouped into a large number of units of meaning， which can be arranged and rearranged into an infinite number of sentences. 3. duality Double articulation No animal communication system has duality or even comes near to possessing it. 4. displacement --- language used to refer to things which are present or not present， real or imagined matters in the past， present， or future， or in far-away places ---- refer to contexts removed from immediate situations of speaker， free from barriers caused by separation in time and place; Animals can only make calls in response to immediate changes of situation 5. Cultural transmission --- born with ability to acquire language， but details of language system are not genetically transmitted， but to be taught and learned; while animal call systems are genetically transmitted 1.2.3 Functions of language 3 main functions: the descriptive function 描述功能 the expressive function 表达功能 the social function 社会功能 They are supposedly distinct from each other but actually overlapping to some degree. the descriptive function Cognitive 认知， or referential 指示， or propositional命题 function Primary function of language To convey factual information Can be asserted or denied， and in some cases even verified. E.g. the Sichuan earthquake is the most serious one china has ever suffered. The expressive function Emotive情感 or attitudinal态度 function Supplies information about the user’s feelings， preferences， prejudices， and values. E.g. I will never go camping with the Simpsons again. The social function Interpersonal function Serves to establish and maintain social relations between people E.g. how can I help you， sir? Roman Jakobson ---- Russian-born structural linguist Addresser----emotive 发话人----情感的 Addresser---- conative 受话人----意动的 Context ---- referential 语境----所指的 Message ---- poetic 信息---- 富有诗意的 Contact ----phatic communion 联系---- 交流情感 code ---- metalinguistic 准则 ---- 元语言 Halliday ---- British linguist， early 1970s 3 macro functions The ideational 概念功能 the interpersonal 人际功能 The textual 语境功能 The ideational function 概念功能 To organize the speaker or writer’s experience of the real or imaginary world. Broader than descriptive function Attitude， evaluation， feelings and emotions the interpersonal 人际功能 To indicate， establish， or maintain social relationships between people It expresses the speaker’s role in the speech situation， his personal commitment and assessment of the social relationship between the addressee and himself. The textual function 语境功能 to organize written or spoken texts in such a manner that they are coherent within themselves and fit the particular situation in which they are used. 填空题 In the course of time， the study of language has come to establish close links with other branches of s studies， such as sociology and psychology. Language exists in time and changes through time. The description of a language at some point of time is called a s study of language. 填空题 As the first step of their scientific investigation of language， linguistics have to observe and collect linguistic f before they can do anything else. If a linguistic study describes and analyzes the language people actually use， it is said to be d . 判断题 In the history of any language the writing system always came into being before the spoken form. Human capacity for language has a genetic basic， i.e. we are all born with the ability to acquire language and the details of a language system are genetically transmitted. Modern linguistics is mainly diachronic.
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